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 Some metals are naturally found in the body and are essential to human health. Iron, for example, prevents anemia, and zinc is a cofactor in over 100 enzyme reactions. They normally occur at low concentrations and are known as trace metals. In high doses, they may be toxic to the body or produce deficiencies in other trace metals; for example, high levels of zinc can result in a deficiency of copper, another metal required by the body. A table listing these trace metals can be found below. Nutrient elements Nutritional elements serve a variety of metabolic
functions. As structural components, they are part of the skeletal system,
vitamin B12, hemoglobin, and thyroid hormone. As cellular regulators, they
are involved in nerve transmission, maintenance of cell membrane
permeability, and regulation of osmotic pressure, water balance, and
acid-base equilibrium.
Sources: Cataplex E, Immuplex, Catalyn Signs/Symptoms: Low levels of selenium have shown an
association with lung and breast cancers.62,63 Discussion: There are clear relationships between selenium levels in blood, urine and hair samples. Hair selenium reflects dietary intake over time.60 Because selenium serves as a cofactor for glutathione peroxidase, an important enzyme in the antioxidant cascade and cellular protection, the low levels of selenium found in some cases of cancer may reflect long- term impairment of cell protection capacity.61 Hair selenium has been observed to increase with supplementation.64 Sources: Cataplex GTF, Immuplex, Catalyn Signs/Symptoms: Hypo and hyperglycemia, glucose intolerance, diabetes Discussion: It has been known for some time that chromium is a key element in glucose utilization, and adult-onset diabetics have significantly lower hair chromium levels.66 Recent studies also show that hair chromium rises in gestational diabetes, suggesting that an underlying cause of glucose intolerance in gestational diabetes mellitus may not be chromium deficiency but instead impaired chromium utilization.67 Chromium, although an essential element, can be toxic at higher levels, as found in industrial exposure, causing hepatic peroxidative damage. Studies conducted on tannery workers indicated that exposure to leather tanning compounds resulted in elevated concentrations of hair chromium and that hair concentrations may provide an index of industrial exposure.68
Sources: Catalyn Signs/Symptoms: It may be that certain behavioral defects, depression, violent tendencies and learning disabilities are caused, or aggravated, by low nutritional lithium intake coupled with marginal deficiencies of B12 and folic acid, whose transport is also modulated by lithium.
Discussion:
Hair appears to
be a reliable indicator of lithium status, and hair lithium is often low in
violent offenders. A direct association was observed between hair lithium
and cobalt concentrations, suggesting a role for lithium in the transport
and distribution of vitamin B12. Hair lithium levels increase in response to
supplementation, but lithium is a marker only in some subjects.69-71.
Sources: Chezyn, Catalyn, Allorganic Trace Minerals B12, Copper Liver Chelate, Catalyn Signs/Symptoms: Discussion: Sources: Zinc Liver Chelate, Chezyn, Catalyn Signs/Symptoms: Lung cancer, neural tube defects, slow growth, anorexia Discussion: Hair zinc levels show a number of interesting correlations, such as lower levels reported in lung cancer.72 Another study involving cancer showed that children with malignancies in remission exhibited the same values for zinc, copper, and a zinc/copper ratio as did controls. In contrast, children with malignancies not in remission showed decreased hair levels of zinc and copper and an increased zinc/copper ratio.73 In addition, maternal levels of zinc were decreased in women who bore children with neural tube defects.74 Zinc levels in hair were also low in children with pica, anorexia, and poor growth.75 Sources: Catalyn, Cataplex E, Ligaplex I, Manganese B, Allorganic Trace Minerals B12 Signs/Symptoms: Discussion: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis correlates with significantly higher levels of manganese.76 High hair manganese has also recently been associated with violent behavior, possibly because of its link to dopamine and serotonin depletion.77 Sources: Catalyn Signs/Symptoms: Psychiatric disorders Discussion: The element rubidium has been under scrutiny for its possible use in neuro-psychiatric medications, particularly as an anti-depressant in bipolar disorder. Although it can be toxic, this occurs only if concentrations in erythrocytes or muscle cells reach 30% of potassium levels. Rubidium gains entry to cells via K-pumping sites for which it exhibits a greater affinity than potassium itself.78 One intriguing study linked rubidium uptake by neoplastic cells to resultant shrinkage of tumor mass and eventual cytotoxicity. This effect was enhanced by vitamins A and C and the elements zinc and selenium.79 Grossly elevated hair rubidium may be cause for concern, especially if there are symptoms relating to potassium deficiency, such as weakness, hypotension, or muscle twitching Sources: Catalyn Signs/Symptoms: Osteoporosis, poor bone growth Discussion: Strontium is under investigation as an agent that influences the osteoporotic process, inhibiting the activity of the 24 and 24, 25 hydroxy forms of Vitamin D3 in animal models.80 The hair levels of this element have been shown to vary with gender and age, with higher levels in women and young people.81 This pattern constitutes a potential area of concern regarding children exposed to strontium. Higher rates of problems with bone growth or mineralization may occur when excessive strontium is present, hampering the important bone-building process in children and teenagers. Sources: Calcium Lactate, Calcifood Wafers, Calcifood Powder, Min-Chex, Min-Tran, Ostarplex, Rumaplex, Wheat Germ Oil, Catalyn Signs/Symptoms: Cardiovascular disease, heart attack, osteoporosis Discussion: An imbalance between calcium and magnesium may contribute to stone formation. This vitamin-mineral relationship may explain the beneficial effects of vitamin B6 in helping to reduce the incidence of kidney stone formation This nutrient mineral has been studied extensively in the hair. Perhaps the most useful of the hair calcium correlations is its link to cardiovascular disease. In retrospective studies, high calcium in the hair was related to low aortic calcium, and a low hair calcium showed correlation with myocardial infarction and other pathology of the cardiovascular system including chronic cor pulmonale.82,83 Osteoporosis is also associated with low calcium.84 It was demonstrated that antioxidant supplementation along with vitamin D can increase hair calcium levels.85 These studies suggest that an inverse relationship exists between hair calcium and cardiovascular disease. Sources: Calcium Lactate, Magnesium Lactate, Chlorophyll Complex Perles, Min-Chex, Min-Tran, Organic Minerals, Catalyn Signs/Symptoms: Decreased blood flow to the brain, diabetes, schizophrenia, osteoporosis Discussion: An imbalance between calcium and magnesium may contribute to stone formation. This vitamin-mineral relationship may explain the beneficial effects of vitamin B6 in helping to reduce the incidence of kidney stone formation There are many studies involving this macromineral nutrient in the hair, and levels do increase with even fairly low amounts of supplementation.86 In one study of elderly patients, a higher hair magnesium level was associated with higher rates of regional cerebral blood flow.87 Low magnesium has been linked with complications of diabetes and in certain circumstances with schizophrenia.88,89 The observations regarding these last two elements appear to support the importance of a proper calcium/magnesium ratio, leading away from simple calcium supplementation for those at risk for osteoporosis. Sources: Catalyn Signs/Symptoms: Psychiatric disorders especially bipolar disorder Discussion: Correlations between hair vanadium levels and bipolar disorder indicate that the elevated vanadium found among patients with active symptoms tends to normalize during recovery.90 Vanadate is reported to inhibit Na/K ATPase. This effect is reduced in the treatment of bipolar disorders and depression by the use of several psychotropic drugs which catalyze the vanadate-vanadyl reaction. This reaction results in less inhibitory impact on the enzyme system and clinical improvement.91 The correlation between changing hair levels of an element and movement toward clinical recovery is an affirmation of homeodynamic response mechanisms at work. Sources: Catalyn Signs/Symptoms: Low molybdenum levels have been associated with impotency Molybdenum poisoning is virtually unknown. Excessive dietary intake of grains, seeds, and legumes rich in molybdenum can cause deposits in soft tissues and joints, and trigger arthritic symptoms. Other symptoms include gout, severe diarrhea, growth depression, and anemia (typical symptoms of copper deficiency). Symptoms associated with elevated molybdenum levels:
Symptoms associated with molybdenum deficiency:
Discussion: Molybdenum is essential for plants and serves as a cofactor for the enzyme xanthine and aldehyde oxidases. Medical research states that this catalyst is possibly anticarcinogenic. The states of Colorado and Ohio have soils particularly rich in molybdenum, and report the lowest incidences of cancer of the esophagus. This type of cancer is particularly widespread in South Africa (Transkei region), which has very low molybdenum concentration. The same applies for regions that are poor in molybdenum. Molybdenum is important for uric acid metabolism. Molybdenum may play a role in the prevention of
carcinogenesis of cells. Chung Hua Chung Liu Tsa Chi. Effect of molybdenum
on the alkylation of DNA in the liver of rats treated with
14C-diethylnitrosamine. 1987. Sources: Allorganic Trace Minerals-B12 ®, Iodomere®, Organic Iodine™Signs/Symptoms: There is no significant danger of toxicity of iodine from a natural diet, though some care must be taken when supplementing iodine or using it in drug therapy. High iodine intake, however, may actually reduce thyroxine production and thyroid function. Excessive quantities of iodized salt, taking too many kelp tablets, or overuse of potassium iodide expectorants such as SSKI can cause some problems, but regular elevated intake of iodine is needed to produce toxicity. Some people have allergic reactions, mainly as skin rashes, to iodine products. Iodine supplementation may also worsen acne in some cases.Deficiencies of iodine have been very common, especially in areas where the soil is depleted, as discussed earlier. Several months of iodine deficiency can lead to goiter and/or hypothyroidism. With decreased iodine, the thyroid cells and gland enlarge, creating a goiter, which may be noticed mainly by the swelling it causes in the base of the neck. Goiter is usually associated with hypothyroidism, which is decreased thyroid function that leads to slower metabolism, fatigue, weight gain, sluggishness, dry hair, thick skin, poor mental functioning, decreased resistance to infection, a feeling of coldness, and a decrease in sexual energy. More advanced hypothyroidism may worsen these symptoms as well as create a hyperactive, manic state and hypertension, which is paradoxical because this may occur with an overactive thyroid as well. Iodine by itself usually will not cure goiter and hypothyroidism but often will slow their progression. Goitrogens are substances that can induce goiter, primarily by interfering with the formation and function of thyroglobulin. Some natural goitrogens are soybeans, cabbage, cauliflower, and peanuts, especially when they come from iodine-deficient soils. Millet has recently been described as having goitrogenic tendencies. Certain drugs, such as thiouracil and sulfonamides, also act as goitrogens. Some early studies correlate low iodine levels with an increased risk of breast cancer. These low levels usually correlate with low selenium levels as well, more classically associated with cancer. A higher incidence of breast cancer has been shown to occur in the goiter belt, whereas areas with high soil levels of iodine and selenium show a lower incidence. Discussion: MIodine is a good example of a trace mineral whose deficiency creates a disease that is easily corrected by resupplying it in the diet. Goiter, an enlargement of the thyroid gland, develops when this important metabolic gland does not have enough iodine to manufacture hormones. As it increases its cell size to try to trap more iodine, the whole gland increases in size, creating a swelling in the neck. Without supplemental iodine, a hypothyroid condition results, likely leading to fatigue and sluggishness, weight gain, and coldness of the body; at this stage, the condition may be harder to treat with iodine alone and thyroid hormone supplementation may be needed. Goiter was first noted in the Great Lakes region; the "goiter belt" included that area and the midwestern and Plains states. In the 1930s, approximately 40 percent of the people in Michigan had goiter, due mainly to iodine-deficient soil; glacier melting had washed away the iodine. Areas by oceans or in the vicinity of ocean breezes usually contain enough iodine to prevent goiters. In 1924, iodine was added to table salt, a substance that was already in wide use (our salt problem has been going on for a long time). Iodized salt was first introduced in Michigan; by 1940, it was in general use. Even today, iodine deficiency is still a problem, and many people in the United States have goiter. Cretinism, another condition caused by iodine deficiency, is characterized by mental retardation and other problems. It may be present in iodine-deficient babies or children born to women who are lacking iodine. It is a serious and nonreversible problem that should be avoided by proper iodine intake. Iodine itself is a poisonous gas, as are the related halogens chlorine, fluorine, and bromine. However, as with chlorine, the salts or negatively charged ions of iodine (iodides) are soluble in water, and iodine is essential to life in trace amounts. Plants do not need iodine, but humans require it for the production of thyroid hormones that regulate the metabolic energy of the body and set the basal metabolic rate (BMR). The body contains about 25 mg. of iodine. A small percentage of this is in the muscles, 20 percent is in the thyroid, and the rest is in the skin and bones. Only 1 percent is present in the blood. The concentration of iodine in the thyroid gland is very high, more than 1,000 times that in the muscles. Approximately one-fourth of thyroid iodine is in the two main thyroid hormones, T4 (thyroxine) and T3 (triiodothyronine). Thyroxine itself is nearly two-thirds iodine. The remainder is in the precursor molecules of these two important hormones. Iodine is well absorbed from the stomach into the blood. About 30 percent goes to the thyroid gland, depending on the need. Iodine is eliminated rapidly. Most of the remaining 70 percent is filtered by the kidneys into the urine. Our bodies do not conserve iodine as they do iron, and we must obtain it regularly from the diet. There is recent concern that perhaps iodine is being overconsumed, especially in iodized salt. The incidence of goiter has been rising again, however, so there may be factors other than iodine involved in this problem. Food Sources: The life from ocean waters provides the best source of iodine. Fish, shellfish, and sea vegetables (seaweed) are dependably rich sources. Cod, sea bass, haddock, and perch are a few examples of iodine-rich sea animals consumed by humans; kelp is the most common, high-iodine sea vegetable. Kelp in particular is rich in other minerals and low in sodium and thus is a good seasoning substitute for salt. The use of iodized salt has certainly reduced most iodine deficiency. It contains about 76 mcg. of iodine per gram of salt. The average person consumes at least 3 grams of salt daily, exceeding the RDA for iodine of 150 mcg. Many authorities feel (and I believe) that commercial iodized salt is overused and has other drawbacks. It contains aluminum and other unneeded chemicals and may contribute to other problems. Fast foods may be very high in iodine because of the added salt. Adding iodine to salt is part of the paternalistic thinking of the industrial age, not counting on people to learn or adapt, "just put it in their food or water and save them from their own ignorance." There are healthier ways to obtain iodine than in table salt; eating fish, especially fresh ocean fish, is probably the best, as it also may help reduce cholesterol and cardiovascular disease risk. Sea salt from the ocean water is a natural source of iodine, although it is not nearly as high in this mineral as "iodized" salt. Dietary iodine content may vary widely, depending on the iodine content in the soil in which food grows. Plants grown in or animals grazed on iodine-rich soil will contain substantial amounts of iodine. Milk and its products may be sources of iodine when the cows have an iodized salt lick in their pasture. Eggs may also be a good source when iodine is in the chicken feed. Bakers may add iodine to dough, so some may be present in bread. Other foods that may contain iodine, especially when the soil is good, are onions, mushrooms, lettuce, spinach, green peppers, pineapple, peanuts, cheddar cheese, and whole wheat bread. More and more, people are eating wholesome, natural foods, avoiding iodized salt, so they must eat more of the iodine-rich foods, such as the sea vegetables, or obtain iodine from a general vitamin-mineral supplement to make sure they are getting adequate amounts. Functions: Iodine is an essential nutrient for production of the body's thyroid hormones and therefore is required for normal thyroid function. The thyroid hormones, particularly thyroxine, which is 65 percent iodine, are responsible for our basal metabolic rate (BMR)-that is, the body's use of energy. Thyroid is required for cell respiration and the production of energy as ATP and further increases oxygen consumption and general metabolism. The thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine, are also needed for normal growth and development, protein synthesis, and energy metabolism. As thyroid stimulates the energy production of the cellular mitochondria and affects our BMR, it literally influences all body functions. Nerve and bone formation, reproduction, the condition of the skin, hair, nails, and teeth, and our speech and mental state are all influenced by thyroid as well. Thyroid and, thus, iodine also affect the conversion of carotene to vitamin A and of ribonucleic acids to protein; cholesterol synthesis; and carbohydrate absorption. Iodine is picked up by the thyroid and combines with the thyroid hormones and amino acid tyrosine to make the thyroid hormone precursors diiodotyrosine, diiodothyronine, and monoiodotyrosine and, then, the hormones T3 and T4. These hormones are then carried through the body by a protein called thyroid binding globulin (TBG). Uses: Supplemental iodine may be helpful in correcting hypothyroidism and goiter caused by deficient iodine intake, and it may reverse many of the symptoms of cretinism if given soon after birth. Thus, iodine's main use is really in the prevention or early treatment of its deficiency diseases. Iodine has also been used to help increase energy level and utilization in cases of fatigue, mental sluggishness, and weight gain caused by hypothyroidism. Iodine itself will not help with weight loss if there is normal thyroid function. If weight gain results from iodine deficiency causing decreased thyroid activity, this hypothyroid condition may be improved with iodine followed by thyroid supplementation. Iodine solutions, such as iodine tincture or Betadine, are commonly used as antiseptics and can actually kill bacteria and fungi. Because of the thyroid's role in fat and cholesterol metabolism, sufficient iodine and thus normal thyroid levels are thought to help reduce atherosclerosis potential. Also, iodine and thyroid may help maintain healthy hair, skin, and nails. It is possible that iodine deficiency increases the risk of certain cancers, such as breast, ovary, and uterus. Iodine levels may be low in people with fibrocystic breast disease; in this case, supplementation may improve this condition. Potassium iodide has been used medicinally for problems of the skin and as an expectorant for bronchial congestion. Silver iodide has been used to seed clouds to bring rain, but this practice is considered ecologically unsound. Iodine supplements may help prevent uptake of radioactive iodine if that is present in the environment or in medical diagnostic procedures. If the thyroid were saturated with normal iodine, it would eliminate the radioactive molecules more rapidly.
Requirements: The RDA for iodine in adults is 150 mcg. The amount
necessary to prevent goiter is about 1 mcg./kg.-that is, about 50-75 mcg.
for most adults. Average intake from diet ranges from 65 mcg. to about 650
mcg. Much of that may come from iodized salt, which is not highly
recommended; however, it is very difficult to avoid salt completely in our
culture because it is added to so many prepared foods and by restaurants and
mothers everywhere. A 6-ounce portion of ocean fish contains about 500 mcg.
of iodine, more than is contained in one teaspoon of salt but without the
extra 2 grams of sodium. Ideally, we can meet our iodine requirements by
eating seafood, seaweed, and vegetables grown in iodine-rich soil. A typical
mineral or complete vitamin supplement will contain the RDA, 150 mcg., of
iodine per day. More iodine is needed during pregnancy and lactation. People
on low-salt diets may need supplemental iodine.
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