The Thymus Gland
by Dr. Gary Farr on 22 July 2003

1

Anatomy and Physiology

The thymus gland is a pink-grey organ that lies underneath the top of the breast bone. In animals it is known as the sweetbreads.

No one knew much about the thymus until recently. On autopsies it was noticed that young adults that had died in traumatic accidents often had much larger thymus glands than those dying from diseases of a chronic nature, and it was also believed that the thymus ceased to function after childhood.

We are just now unraveling the mysteries of this gland. The thymus processes a type of white blood cell known as a T-lymphocyte. These T-lymphocytes govern cellular immunity which means they help cells recognize and destroy invading bacteria, virus, etc., abnormal cell growth such as cancer, and foreign tissue.

Experiments done on animals have shown that if the thymus is removed before birth the baby will accept an organ transplant without rejecting it (it has lost its ability to recognize foreign tissue). At the same time that baby will exhibit little or no ability to fight off disease. Also animals that had their thymus removed would develop cancer rapidly upon injection of cancer cells into their body, while animals with an intact thymus would in most cases destroy the cells.

A Historical Look at The Thymus Gland

The Thymus Gland

"'Has it yet fallen to the lot of any writer upon the thymus to write the truth and be believed?---Beard, 1902.'" (Diamond, M.D., page 8)

"A recent case described in a medical journal is that of a young boy who was admitted to the hospital in coma from a severe viral pneumonia. He was unconscious, with a high temperature, and was on forced respiration, being unable to breathe unassisted. Everything was done to resuscitate him, but it was quite obvious that he was going to die. The equivalent of a T-cell count was performed; approximately one fifth the normal level was found. He was then given an injection of thymus extract, and within twenty-four hours the entire process had reversed itself. His temperature was down, he was breathing unassisted, and he was conscious. This is the kind of dramatic recovery we are going to see more and more as accurate testing of thymus function and administration of thymus extract, when indicated, becomes routine in medical practice, as I am sure it will in the next five or ten years. As one of the most eminent workers in the field has said, 'The second golden age of 'thymology' is just beginning.'*" (Diamond, pages 10-11)(*J.F.A.P. Miller, Lancet. December 16, 1967, p. 1302.)

"In spite of modern research findings, the myth of the shriveling, useless thymus dies hard. Whenever I lecture on the thymus gland to medical audiences, I am reminded that 'everyone knows that the thymus gland has no function in adult life.' But the evidence accumulated over the last twenty years on the thymus gland's role in immunology is so overwhelming that it is hard for me to believe that there is not some unconscious factor working to deny it the recognition due to it." (Diamond, M.D., page 9)

"The thymus gland lies just beneath the upper part of the breastbone in the middle of the chest. It is present in all mammals, and is called the sweetbread in calves. until the 1950s little was understood about the thymus, although there had been clues to its function for many years. As far back as 1902, Foulerton, a London physician, was using thymus extract in the treatment of cancer. However, the standard teaching was that the thymus gland had no function at all in the adult, a delusion fostered by the fact that during autopsy the thymus was usually found to be quite small and atrophied. This is because the thymus gland, in response to acute stress such as an infection, can shrivel to half its size in twenty-four hours. No wonder it was in a state of atrophy when examined post-mortem!" (Diamond, M.D., page 8)

"The fact that the size of the thymus was generalized from autopsy observations led to a tragic misdiagnosis of illness in children in the 1920s to the 1940s. It was known from routine autopsies that children have larger thymuses than adults. however, when children who died suddenly, as in 'crib death,' were found at post-mortem examination to have particularly large thymus glands, they were thought to have died from a thymus-related disease, a disease given the name 'status thymicolymphaticus.' Research on the thymus gland in the 1950s, along with further evidence from post-mortem examination, brought this disease into question. Pathologists took note of the fact that autopsies performed from those who died on the battlefield were similar to those men of the same age who died from chronic illness in a hospital. Eventually it was realized that the thymus shrinks rapidly during serious illness or great physical stress. The children gland had time to shrink; their large thymuses were actually the normal size. A whole disease had been constructed on the erroneous idea that the thymus gland had swollen and caused death. To think that children's thymus glands had frequently been irradiated to make them smaller on the assumption that this would reduce the chance of illness! What it did was destroy a vital part of their immune system and make them susceptible to infections, cancer, and chronic diseases!" (Diamond, M.D., pages 8-9)

The Thymus Gland - Origin of its Name

"At one point in the Iliad, Achilles says: 'Waking like smoke in the breasts of men, even as Agamemnon angered me, but we will let bygones be bygones, quieting the thymos in our breasts.' Thus, thymos was metaphorically a rising of smoke in the breast, as its Indo-European roots imply." (Diamond, M.D., page 129)

"Although thymus comes from the Greek word thymos, its roots go deeper. Tracing it back beyond the world of Socrates and Plato, we find that thymos is from the Indo-European root dheu, which is the base of a wide variety of derivatives meaning 'to rise into flames,' 'to rise in a cloud,' 'to smoke.' In Sanskrit the word was dhuma, from which come 'fume' and 'perfume'." (Diamond, M.D., page 128)

"Interestingly enough, the word thymus is derived from the Greek thymos...which is untranslatable into modern terms but denoted life force, soul, and feeling or sensibility. As Onians points out, thymos originally referred to the breath. It was the stuff of consciousness, the spirit, the breath-soul, upon which depended a man's energy and courage. Even the earliest origins of the word implied rising into flames, as a cloud, spirit, which relate it to the concept of soul and Life Energy." (Diamond, M.D., page 29)

"L., from G, thymos, thyme: so called because shaped like the thyme flower." (Webster's Dictionary, page 1,906)

"...thyme derives its Latin name from the plant's serpentlike growth. Pliny recommends it as an antidote for snakebites..." (Ody, page 104)

"In the second century, Galen gave the name thymus to the pinkish-gray two-lobed organ in the chest because, it is said, it reminded him of a bunch of thyme." (Diamond, M.D., page 129)

"But the thyme plant itself was so named because it was burned as incense to the gods. Indeed, the altarlike elevation in the center of the orchestra of a Greek theater was called the thymele, and sacrificial incense was placed in the thymiaterion, or censer. Thymos, then, was a rising of smoke, a burning of incense, a sacrificing up to the gods--all taking place in the chest, the inner altar. It was aspiration, songs of praise, spirit, and the putting out of love. It was the breath-soul, on which depended a man's energy and courage." (Diamond, M.D., page 129)

"...the thymus...this vital organ." (Weston, M.D., page 99)

"the thymus of an animal, when used as food, is called sweetbread..." (Webster's Dictionary, page 1,906)

"The thymus gland...is present in all mammals, and is called the sweetbread in calves." (Diamond, M.D., page 8)

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2

The Thymus Gland

A Look at the Immune System

"The immune system is the most important homeostatic system for defending the body against foreign substances. We can define its action as a defense against non-self substances which are potentially harmful." (Chaffee, page 304)

"The immune response can be defined as the body's ability to recognize materials that are foreign to it and the ability to make specific responses to these materials.

The Two Types of Immunity within the Immune System:

"The type of immunity known as humoral immunity is due to a specialized group of plasma proteins called antibodies. Specific antibodies are formed against foreign materials called antigens. The humoral immune system is mobile. Antibodies are found in the blood and lymph and may travel to the surface of the body to become the secretory immune system. Another type of immunity, provided by the phagocytic cellular system, is known as cell-mediated immunity. (Chaffee, pages 304-305)

1) Humoral Immunity:

"The B cells, which are responsible for humoral immunity, are so named because it was found that , in the chick, lymphoid tissue of the lower intestinal tract, called the bursa of Fabricus, is responsible for the development of humoral immunity. Since humans lack this bursa, it is postulated that bursal equivalent tissue exists in the bone marrow and possibly in the liver and spleen." (Chaffee, page 306)

"The body makes millions of antibodies." (Thomas, M.D., page 186)

"All the humoral antibodies are found in the globulin fraction of the blood proteins and, thus, are referred to as immunoglobulins (Ig)....The presence of five classes of immunoglobulins...IgM, IgG, IgA, IgD, and IgE...as well as many subclasses indicates that the different immunoglobulins probably react with different types of antigens...IgG is the smallest molecule and constitutes about 85 percent of plasma antibody." (Chaffee, page 307)

"The IgG and IgM antibodies use the enzymatic activity of a group of plasma globulins referred to as the complement system to accomplish their final goal. The complement system consists of eleven proteins which become active enzymes through a sequence of steps activated by the presence of an antigen-antibody complex. The antibody recognizes the antigen (foreign cell) and binds with it to form a complex which then fixes complement on the surface of the foreign cell where the enzymatic reactions take place. The result usually is lysis of the invading cell and probably phagocytosis." (Chaffee, pages 306-307)

2) Cell-Mediated Immunity

"The T cells, responsible for cell-mediated immunity, are so named from the determination that activity of the thymus and its secretory product, thymosin, is essential for the normal development of cell-mediated immunity. (Chaffee, page 306)

"The lymphocytes responsible for cell-mediated immunity are designated T cells. Like B cells, T cells originate from primitive stem cells and go through stages of maturation...The most noteworthy step is the transformation of pre-T cells into mature activated T cells by the action of the thymus hormone thymosin. This step may be carried out within the thymus gland or elsewhere in the body by the action of the circulating thymosin. These activated T cells may circulate in the blood and lymph or they may come to rest in the inner cortex of the lymph nodes where they appear to form subgroups of T cells with different functions in the immune reaction." (Chaffee, page 308)

"The primary activated T cell is the effector cell. This is the cell that determines the responses we recognize as cell-mediated immunity. This cell can produce and release a series of factors (lymphokines). A very important lymphokine for the final and tissue destruction, is migration-inhibitory factor (MIF). MIF attracts monocytes and macrophages to the site of foreign tissue where the monocytes are transformed into so-called angry or killer macrophages which nonspecifically destroy all cells in their way by lysis and phagocytosis." (Chaffee, page 308)

"Helper T cells appear also to arise from activated T cells. These cells produce a soluble factor that is required, in some cases, for antibody formation by B cells. Such helper action from T cells appears to be most important for IgE and IgG production." (Chaffee, page 308)

"Other T-cells regulate the strength of the immune response. Those known as helper cells secrete substances that turn on antibody production and stimulate phagocytes and other T-cells in times of need..." (Thomas, M.D., page 196)

"Suppressor T cells are cells that appear to regulate or suppress the activity of the B cells in the production of antibodies. There is also evidence that these suppressor T cells are active againsthelper T cells and other aspects of cellular immunity." (Chaffee, page 308)

"Other T-cells regulate the strength of the immune response...those known as suppressor cells produce chemicals that turn off antibody production and suppress the action of other T-cells." (Thomas, M.D., page 196)

T Lymphocytes From The Thymus Gland

"There are two main types of immune cells in the body and they are both different sorts of lymphocytes. The T or 'thymus' cell lymphocytes are under the control of the thymus and are responsible for the recognition of foreign substances and for many of the ways in which the body attacks them. The other sort of immune cell-the B lymphocyte- is responsible for actually manufacturing anti-bodies to foreign substances." (Weston, M.D., page 99)

"Thymus...Stem cells are produced in bone marrow. They then migrate to the thymus, replicate, and develop into T cells." (Clayman, M.D., page 124)

"B lymphocyte...These cells begin life as stem cells in bone marrow. They develop in the lymph nodes...B lymphocytes recognize the foreign proteins, or antigens, of disease organisms since they differ from natural body proteins. Antigens trigger B cells to multiply. Some develop into plasma cells, which secrete antibodies--proteins that attack and destroy only the antigens." (Clayman, page127)

"The thymus gland, then, prepares the T cell to do its work--to distinguish self from not self, friend from foe, and to destroy foreign cells. This role, called immunological surveillance, is directly concerned with resistance to infections and cancer." (Diamond, M.D., page 10)

"T lymphocytes develop inside the thymus gland. 'Killer' T cells react to the remains of destroyed specific antigens, attacking them, as well as any infected cells, with powerful proteins called lymphokines. 'Helper' T cells activate B and T cells, while 'suppressor' T cells inhibit the response of other cells to the invading antigens." (Clayman, M.D., page 127)

"...activated...('killer') T lymphocyte...become(s) attached to an infected target cell after having recognized antigens on its surface. As well as attacking specific antigens, T cells also attack cancer cells, slowing tumor growth." (Clayman, M.D., page 127)

"Memory T cell...These cells may survive for many years to respond to an attempted second invasion by the same antigen. They mobilize very quickly." (Clayman, M.D., page 127)

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3

The Thymus Gland

The Location And Functions of The Thymus Gland

Serveral authors have made interesting comments regarding the thymus:

"THYMUS GLAND…Lying beneath the sternum (breastbone) and above the treachea (windpipe) and heart is the two-lobed thymus gland; each lobe is made up of LYMPHATIC tissue. The thymus gland plays a significant part in the establishment of the immune system from the 12th week of gestation until PUBERTY, after which it begins to shrink gradually." (Stoppard, M.D., page 84)

"thymus...a ductless, glandlike body, of undetermined function, situated in the upper thorax near the throat: it is most prominent at puberty, after which it disappears or becomes vestigial: the thymus of an animal, when used as food, is called sweetbread..." (Webster's Dictionary, page 1,906)

"There is still considerable ignorance about exactly how the thymus does its job, but it is now known that it is essential for the proper running of the lymphatic system, and that it has really carried out its major function during the first few years of life." (Weston, M.D., pages 98-99)

"Thymus gland. An imperfectly understood gland, the thymus is believed to produce thymosin, which promotes the development of antibodies, especially T lymphocytes, or T cells. The thymus stops working after puberty." (Time-Life, page 75)

"The thymus is found in the upper part of the chest, where it lies just behind the breastbone. In a young adult it is a few centimeters long and weighs about 15 gm. (one-half ounce). However, this simple statement conceals the most remarkable thing about the thymus, and that is the way that, quite unlike any other organ, it is at its largest at about the time of puberty when it may weigh up to 45 gm (one and one-half ounces). In a baby, the thymus is really very large compared to the rest of the body, and it may extend quite a long way down the chest behind the breastbone. It grows quite quickly until about the age of seven; after this the thymus continues to grow, but much more slowly until puberty. After the age of puberty the thymus starts to shrink in size--a process called involution--until in an elderly person there may be no more thymus tissue present apart from a bit of fat and connective tissue." (Weston, M.D., pages 98-99)

"Hormones secreted by the bilobed thymus stimulate the production of white blood cells" (Thomas, M.D., page 239)

"There seems to be little doubt that in the early years of life the thymus is concerned with programming the way in which the body resists infection, and in particular, it seems that the thymus is responsible for making sure that the system does not turn its activities against the body's own tissues." (Weston, M.D., page 99)

"The thymus, a member of the lymphatic system, is located in the anterior/superior mediastinum (just above and in front of the heart). It is known to play a critical role in the seeding of the lymphatic organs (lymph nodes, diffuse lymphatic tissue, etc.) with potential "T" lymphocytes, which secrete a substance that attacks the protein of certain tumor cells, foreign cells, and micro-organisms (cellular immunity). There is evidence that the thymus produces a hormone (thymosin) that enhances the development of "T" lymphocytes. Activity of the thymus wanes significantly after puberty; it ultimately atrophies to be replaced with fibrous tissue." (Kapit and Elson, Anatomist, page or plate 106)

"Thymus hormones travel through the bloodstream and continue to exert their influence over the departed T cells. Thus, the thymus can be considered to be a true endocrine gland-- carried to another part of the body where it will have its effect. We know that the thymus continues to secrete hormones and to 'train' and export T cells until late in life. After puberty it diminishes in size because it is no longer concerned with growth. Any further shrinkage is due to stress and other factors to be discussed in this book." (Diamond, M.D., page 10)

"In embryonic and early life the thymus gland is vitally concerned with growth, as has been demonstrated by the fact that administration of thymus extract dramatically increases growth rate in laboratory animals. More importantly, it is the 'school and factory' for lymphocytes--the white blood cells responsible Under the influence of thymus hormones, these cells mature, then leave the thymus and settle in the lymph nodes and the spleen, where they give rise to other generations of lymphocytes called T cells (T for thymus-derived). Thymus hormones travel through departed T cells. Thus, the thymus can be considered to be a true endocrine gland--that is, an organ that secretes a hormone into the bloodstream to be carried to another part of the body where it will have its effect." (Diamond, M.D., page 10)

"In the fetus and newborn animal, the thymus gland is a large organ lying in the upper mediastinum beneath the sternum. In the very young fetus it is composed primarily of epithelioid cells, but it has a reticular structure that entraps stem cells circulating in the blood. For reasons not understood, these trapped stem cells are then stimulated to proliferate extremely rapidly, and the cells that are formed are the first lymphocytes to appear in the fetus. These lymphocytes migrate into the blood and thence throughout the body, seeding the lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissue. The seeded cells then become either plasmablasts, the progenitors of the plasma cells, or lymphoblasts, the progenitors of the small lymphocytes formed in the lymphoid tissue. Thus, the thymus plays an important role in the original genesis of the entire lymphoid system of the body." (Guyton, M.D., page 122)

"Failure of the Immune System to Develop in the Absence of the Thymus Gland. If the thymus gland is removed early in fetal life, the lymphoid tissue of the entire body fails to become seeded with lymphocytes, and consequently, essentially no immune system develops. Even if the thymus is removed shortly before birth of the baby or within the first few days after birth, the immune system is still greatly impaired. Furthermore, the lymphocytic type of immunity seems to be much more impaired than the humoral type, indicating that plasmablast seeding of the lymphoid tissue occurs earlier than lymphoblast seeding. However, if the thymus gland is removed from an animal a few weeks to a few months after birth, very little harm is done to the immune system, because by that time enough seeding of the lymphoid tissue has occurred for the immune system to function throughout life. One exception to this occurs as follows: If the person is subsequently exposed to some effect, such as a nuclear bomb blast, that destroys most of his immune system, he will have difficulty reseeding his lymphoid tissue without the availability of a thymus gland. Here again, lymphocytic immunity is affected much more severely than is humoral immunity." (Guyton, M.D., page 122)

"Possibility of a Thymic Hormone. Even though the thymus gland is absolutely necessary for the early seeding of lymphoid tissue with lymphoblasts and plasmablasts, once this seeding process has occurred, one might expect that the lymphoblasts and plasmablasts could proliferate within the lymphoid tissue without further intervention from the thymus gland. Yet, even so, removal of the thymus gland still stops or greatly impedes further growth of the lymphoid tissue. If the thymus gland is then re-implanted can get out of the thymus gland, the lymphoid tissue throughout the body immediately resumes its growth. Therefore, it is believed that some hormonal substance released by the thymus gland diffuses throughout the body to activate the growth of the lymphoid tissue. This substance is called simply the thymic hormone. Thus far all attempts to extract from the thymus gland a specific substance that will perform all the functions of the so-called thymic hormone have failed. Nevertheless, there is still reason to believe that such a hormone might exist and that eventually it will be extracted." (Guyton, M.D., page 122)

Symptoms of Thymus Dysfunction

A person with an underactive thymus gland will be prone to getting sick often. Infection will be common and will often be chronic and
prolonged. Allergies will also be more likely. Other symptoms include swollen glands, depression, extreme sweating, puffiness of the throat. The person will be a likely candidate for cancer.

Diseases Associated With The Thymus Gland

Immunodeficiency Diseases in General:

"Immunodeficiency diseases are well recognized in the human. These diseases range from the selective deficiency of where both the T and B cell systems are lacking. Treatment depends on the determination of the specific immunodeficiency and some positive results have been demonstrated by transplantation of bone marrow and thymus and by the use of the hormone thymosin. Presently we know more about the specific deficiency diseases than we do about effective treatments." (Chaffee, pages 308-309)

"Diet can affect immune system function. Malnutrition, a deficiency of protein or the trace element zinc, or dietary excess may all have a profound effect on the development of disease. A severe deficiency of protein at an early age can slow or stunt growth of the thymus, impairing the normal functioning of T-cells." (Thomas, M.D., page 217)

"Perhaps most provocative and least understood is thecomplex connection between the immune system and the brain. Mental stress, both moderate and severe, can affect the workings of our white blood cells. In one study, it was found that patients hospitalized for severe depression had suppressed or underactive immune systems, making them more vulnerable to infections and disease. Another study showed that the suffering of a widower over the loss of his wife may harm his health: Bereavement seems to prevent lymphocytes from reacting appropriately. Even the much milder strain of taking an exam appears to reduce T-cell activity." (Thomas, M.D., pages 217 and 219)

"Nerve cells and immune cells seem to engage in two-way conversations. Some immune cells have receptors on their membranes for neuropeptides, chemicals produced by the brain. One group of neuropeptides, known as endorphins, may at response to mental stress seem to suppress the activity of T-cells, perhaps robbing us of help in fighting cancer cells. In some cases, the endorphins appear to have the reverse effect: When we are injured, they may boost our immune response by helping to attract

Cancer:

"Until the 1950s little was understood about the thymus, although there had been clues to its function for many years. As far back as 1902, Foulerton, a London physician, was using thymus extract in the treatment of cancer. However, the standard teaching was that the thymus gland had no function at all in the adult, a delusion fostered by the fact that during autopsy the thymus was usually found to be quite small and atrophied." (Diamond, M.D., page 8)

"Probably the most acceptable theory of cancer is that formulated by Sir MacFarlane Burnet, (F.M.Burnet, Immunology, Aging, and Cancer...San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1976), the Australian Nobel Prize winner. Of the billions of new cells produced in the body each day, some will be abnormal. One of the functions of the T cells is to recognize these abnormal cells and destroy them. However, if the T cells are not activated by the thymus hormone, the abnormal cells may 'take' and develop into clinical cancer. Hence the critical role of the thymus gland throughout adult life in the prevention of cancer." (Diamond, M.D., page 11)

"Now we begin to understand why cancer increases with age It has been shown that the antibody response of old mice is only about 5 percent that of young mice. Old mice cannot reject cancer cells injected into them. However, if old mice are given thymus hormone at the same time, cancer does not develop. In all mammalian species there is a falling off in thymus activity with advancing years, and a corresponding increase in the rate of cancer. The more we can stimulate thymus activity throughout life, the greater will be our ability to ward off cancer." (Diamond, M.D., pages 11-13)

"The thymus gland, then, prepares the T cell to do its work--to distinguish self from not self, friend from foe, and to destroy foreign cells. This role, called immunological surveillance, is directly concerned with resistance to infections and cancer." (Diamond, M.D., page 10)

"Above, a T cell,, a thymus-derived lymphocyte, attacks a cancer cell...large sphere...which it identifies by the antigen molecules protruding from its surface. Below, the cancer These micrographs were made by Andrejs Liepins of the Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research." (Diamond, M.D., page 13, Figures 1 and 2)

"In a human being or an animal in which the thymus gland has been removed or destroyed, there is a loss in effectiveness of the immune mechanisms of the body that guard against infection and cancerous growth. For example, if a young rat that has had its thymus removed is injected with cancer cells, the cancer will take over and the rat will die. However, if the thymus gland is intact, the tumor will be recognized as a hostile invader and will be rejected. There is now considerable evidence that enhancement of the immune response by administering thymus extract can overcome some forms of clinical cancer. A search of the literature shows, as I stated above, that thymus extract was used clinically for the treatment of cancer as long ago as 1902." (Diamond, M.D., pages 9-10)

"B-cells make up one class of lymphocytes. The second class, known as T-cells, mature in the thymus (T stands for thymus). One subgroup of these T-cells, known as killer T-cells, attack and destroy certain cancer cells...cells infected by viral agents, and the cells of transplanted tissue." (Thomas, M.D., pages 186 and 196)

"T cells also attack cancer cells, slowing tumor growth." (Clayman, M.D., page 127)

"Those who suffer the disease (AIDS) become the victims of life-threatening pneumonia, other serious infections, and a rare skin cancer called Kaposi's sarcoma." (Thomas page 196)

Aids:

"Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, commonly referred to as AIDS, is a disease that destroys the body's immune system. It does this by attacking helper T cells, which play an essential role in fighting illness. With the immune system disabled, an AIDS patient will usually die from an illness, called a secondary disease, that the body could have fought off successfully if its immune system were intact. AIDS was first identified in the 1980s, and scientists still do not understand many things about how the disease works." (Time-Life, page 136)

"In people with AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), the normal ratio of helper to suppressor T-cells is disturbed. The AIDS virus attacks helper T-cells preventing them from carrying out one of their regular duties-to activate the immune system when a threat arises. This breakdown in normal communication between immune cells leaves the body virtually undefended. Those who suffer the disease become the victims of life-threatening pneumonia, other serious infections, and a rare skin cancer called Kaposi's sarcoma." (Thomas, M.D., page 196)

"When healthy, the immune system can fight off most of the viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens that invade the body. When the AIDS virus infects the body, the helper T cells are destroyed, resulting in a weakening of the immune system...As the immune system breaks down, the body becomes increasingly susceptible to secondary diseases, such as pneumonia, that it is too weak to fight off. These are the diseases that usually kill AIDS patients." (Time-Life, page 137)

"The HIV consists of genetic material surrounded by a coating of proteins and lipids. Unlike most viruses, the AIDS virus contains no DNA, only RNA. Such viruses are called retroviruses. As the HIV invades helper T cells, it uses an enzyme called reverse transcriptase to convert its RNA into DNA. The new DNA then instructs the T cell to duplicate the virus...Once invaded, the helper T cell dies through a process that is not understood." (Time-Life, pages 136-137)

"Upon entering the body, the AIDS virus attaches itself to a helper T cell and then injects its RNA and reverse transcriptase into the T cell...With the help of the reverse transcriptase, the cell then produces viral DNA, using the RNA as a blueprint...The newly produced viral DNA forms a ring and proceeds to penetrate the nucleus of the helper T cell...Once inside the T cell's nucleus, the viral DNA becomes an inextricable component of the immune cell's genetic material...Following instructions from the DNA, the T cell produces AIDS RNA, reverse transcriptase, and the ingredients of the virus' coat...The viral ingredients that are produced by the invading DNA assemble themselves to become new AIDS viruses...Each new virus leaves the helper T cell in search of a new host cell, further weakening the immune system...Once invaded, the helper T cell dies through a process that is not yet understood." (Time-Life, pages 136-137)

Myasthenia Gravis:

"MYASTHENIA GRAVIS...This autoimmune disorder is marked by severe muscle weakness and fatigue. This is caused by antibodies that gradually reduce the number of receptors in the fibers that stimulate muscle contractions. A thymus disorder may trigger the disease; the gland is removed and immunosuppressant drugs are often part of the treatment...Muscles affected...Early symptoms include double vision and drooping eyelids as facial muscles become weaker. Throat muscles are affected, so chewing and swallowing can become difficult. The disease may eventually spread to the muscles of the arms and legs." (Clayman, M.D., page 57)

Pneumonia:

"A recent case described in a medical journal is that of a young boy who was admitted to the hospital in coma from a severe viral pneumonia. He was unconscious, with a high temperature, and was on forced respiration, being unable to breathe unassisted. Everything was done to resuscitate him, but it was quite obvious that he was going to die. The equivalent of a T-cell count was performed; approximately one fifth the normal level was found. He was then given an injection of thymus extract, and within twenty-four hours the entire process had reversed itself. His temperature was down, he was breathing unassisted, and he was conscious. This is the kind of dramatic recovery we are going to see more and more as accurate testing of thymus function and administration of thymus extract, when indicated, become routine in medical practice, as I am sure it will in the next five or ten years. As one of the most eminent workers in the field has said, "The second golden age of 'thymology' is just beginning." (Diamond, pages 10-11)

When the AIDS virus infects the body, the helper T cells are destroyed, resulting in a weakening of the immune system. As the immune system breaks down, the body becomes increasingly susceptible to secondary diseases, such as pneumonia, that it is too weak to fight off. These are the diseases that usually kill AIDS patients." (Time-Life, page 137)

Infections:

"Those who suffer the disease (AIDS) become the victims of life-threatening pneumonia, other serious infections, and a rare skin cancer called Kaposi's sarcoma." (Thomas, M.D., page 196)

"In a human being or an animal in which the thymus gland has been removed or destroyed, there is a loss in effectiveness of the immune mechanisms of the body that guard against infection and cancerous growth." (Diamond, M.D., page 9)

"The thymus gland, then, prepares the T cell to do its work--to distinguish self from not self, friend from foe, and to destroy foreign cells. This role, called immunological surveillance, is directly concerned with resistance to infections and cancer." (Diamond, M.D., page 10)

Viral Infections:

"The viruses that cause infections are smaller than bacteria and can pass through the smallest cellular filters of the body. When viruses enter the body, they live on the body's cell enzymes. Viral infections are characterized by fever, headaches, muscular aching, and chills. The common cold is a viral infection, as are some forms of croup, mononucleosis, influenza, polio, tonsillitis, infectious hepatitis, encephalitis, measles, some bladder infections, and asthma. Drugs relieve only the symptoms—they do not kill the virus. Antibiotics are not effective against viral infections; they kill bacteria but not the virus. When a viral infection gets out of hand and bacterial complications set in, antibiotics help. The body's defense system reaction against these infections is the same for all viral infections, no matter what organ is affected....NUTRIENTS...SUPPLEMENT...Important...Raw thymus...SUGGESTED DOSAGE...As directed on label...COMMENTS...Important in immune function, stimulating the thymus gland." (Balch, M.D., page 309)

Contact Reflex Analysis Findings

The following reflexes may be active when testing the thymus:

{fre_test_immune_hdr}
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