The Hair Tissue Mineral Analysis / The Trace Metals

Some metals are naturally found in the body and are essential to human health. Iron, for example, prevents anemia, and zinc is a cofactor in over 100 enzyme reactions. They normally occur at low concentrations and are known as trace metals. In high doses, they may be toxic to the body or produce deficiencies in other trace metals; for example, high levels of zinc can result in a deficiency of copper, another metal required by the body. A table listing these trace metals can be found below.

Nutrient elements

Nutritional elements serve a variety of metabolic functions. As structural components, they are part of the skeletal system, vitamin B12, hemoglobin, and thyroid hormone. As cellular regulators, they are involved in nerve transmission, maintenance of cell membrane permeability, and regulation of osmotic pressure, water balance, and acid-base equilibrium.

Additionally, nutritional elements serve as cofactors in a wide array of enzymatic reactions. Various circumstances may result in inadequate status of nutritional elements: insufficient intake, poor digestion, poor absorption, and competitive inhibition by toxic elements. Maintaining optimal digestive function can therefore be a critically important aspect in elemental nutrition. (Comprehensive Digestive Stool Analysis testing may offer significant benefit in improving digestion.)

Research into the relationship of nutrient hair mineral status and behavioral disorders, cardiovascular disease, and cancer offer exciting new and emerging possibilities. Firm correlations between element concentrations in hair and the abnormal physiology for various diseases are as yet incompletely understood. However, some significant relationships have been found.

Signs/Symptoms: Low levels of selenium have shown an association with lung and breast cancers.62,63
Low hair selenium may be a useful marker to explore in the relationship between nutrients and thyroid function. Low hair selenium levels may reflect a clinical worsening of the iodine deficiency state.65

Discussion: There are clear relationships between selenium levels in blood, urine and hair samples. Hair selenium reflects dietary intake over time.60 Because selenium serves as a cofactor for glutathione peroxidase, an important enzyme in the antioxidant cascade and cellular protection, the low levels of selenium found in some cases of cancer may reflect long- term impairment of cell protection capacity.61

Hair selenium has been observed to increase with supplementation.64

Sources: Cataplex® GTF, Immuplex ®, Catalyn ®

Signs/Symptoms: Hypo and hyperglycemia, glucose intolerance, diabetes

Discussion: It has been known for some time that chromium is a key element in glucose utilization, and adult-onset diabetics have significantly lower hair chromium levels.66 Recent studies also show that hair chromium rises in gestational diabetes, suggesting that an underlying cause of glucose intolerance in gestational diabetes mellitus may not be chromium deficiency but instead impaired chromium utilization.67 Chromium, although an essential element, can be toxic at higher levels, as found in industrial exposure, causing hepatic peroxidative damage. Studies conducted on tannery workers indicated that exposure to leather tanning compounds resulted in elevated concentrations of hair chromium and that hair concentrations may provide an index of industrial exposure.68

Sources: Catalyn ®

Signs/Symptoms: It may be that certain behavioral defects, depression, violent tendencies and learning disabilities are caused, or aggravated, by low nutritional lithium intake coupled with marginal deficiencies of B12 and folic acid, whose transport is also modulated by lithium.

Discussion: Hair appears to be a reliable indicator of lithium status, and hair lithium is often low in violent offenders. A direct association was observed between hair lithium and cobalt concentrations, suggesting a role for lithium in the transport and distribution of vitamin B12. Hair lithium levels increase in response to supplementation, but lithium is a marker only in some subjects.69-71.

Lithium is found naturally occurring in water supplies. Too much lithium can interfere with iodine uptake by the thyroid gland, and may block thyroxin release or thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). Lithium is known to alter the intra-to-extra-cellular potassium ratio. This may result in a loss of intracellular potassium and contribute to hyperkalemia (excess potassium in the blood). Other conditions associated with chronic lithium excess include: kidney induced diabetes, hair loss, hypercalcuria (excessive loss of calcium through the urine), inability to acidify the urine, leukocytosis, and eosinophilia. Chronic lithium accumulation has been associated with the following conditions: ⁹²

Sources: Chezyn ®, Trace Minerals–B12®, Copper Liver Chelate, Catalyn ®

Signs/Symptoms:

Low Copper

Physical Symptoms of Low Copper: Not enough oxygen in the cells, lowered levels of HDL cholesterol, skin problems, swollen ankles, anemia, low copper causes the cells to suffocate and lack oxygen, low copper levels linked to low enkephalins produced in the brain

Psychological Symptoms of Low Copper: auditory hallucinations, depression, binge eaters have been found to have lower levels.

High Copper

Copper levels are more often too high than too low. High copper can be toxic.

Discussion: The body contains 50 to 120 milligrams. Copper enter the body from the stomach and upper intestine. Copper is excreted from the body by the liver and bile. Both copper and zinc are involved in the enzyme called superoxide dismutase (SOD) There are several different types of (SOD) superoxide dismutase enzymes containing different trace minerals.

Copper acts as a catalyst in the formation of hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying blood component. The highest concentrations in the body tissue are found in the liver and certain areas of the central nervous system, particularly the brain.

Copper is stored in the liver and excreted in bile salts.

Minerals including copper must be bound to a protein to be usable. Biounavailable means the mineral is present, but in a form that is unsuitable for the body.

What Copper does in the body:

• Helps oxidize glucose and release energy.
• Helps the body absorb iron.
• Aids the thyroid gland in balancing and secreting hormones.
• Carries oxygen in the blood stream.
• Supplies the body's tissues with oxygen
• Increases the body's energy levels.
• Aids in nerve and brain function
• Needed for the functioning of the amino acid, tyrosine.
• Essential for making red blood cells.
• Helps the body absorb iron.
• Helps tyrosine work as a pigment factor
• Helps supply oxygen to the brain.
• Enzyme component
• Necessary for the synthesis of the hormone adrenaline.
• Associated with intestinal enzyme activity.
• Acts as a brain stimulant
• Copper antagonizes manganese ions.
• Copper level in the body parallels estrogen levels.
• Copper is a natural yeast fighter
• Copper improves epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine.

Causes of Low Copper:

• Refining white flour
• Alkaline medium inhibits copper
• As a result of the administration of total parenteral nutrition (nutritional intravenous feeding).
• Excess accumulates in liver, kidneys and brain.
• Phytates hinder absorption
• High levels of zinc, iron, calcium and manganese interfere with copper absorption

The Medical Conditions That Cause Low Copper:

Conditions are rare, but common in infants who are premature.

Menkes' syndrome is a hereditary disorder causing copper deficiency. Symptoms: kinky hair, mental retardation, and low copper level in the blood and a failure to synthesize the enzymes that require copper.

Causes of High Copper:

• Excess estrogen in the meat supply (estrogen used as a growth hormone in the meat industry was discontinued in the 80's and replaced with testosterone, etc.)

• Birth control pill

• Use of prescription medications containing copper.

• Smoking

• Too much copper in drinking water

• Zinc and manganese deficiency raises copper levels.

• Copper lowers the histamine levels.

NOTE: It takes 3 months to lower the level in the body.

The Medical Conditions That Cause High Copper:

Wilson's Disease is a condition that causes copper to accumulate in the tissues and cause extensive damage. Affects 1 in 30,000 people. The liver does not secrete copper into the blood or excrete copper into the bile. Low blood levels, high in the brain, eyes and liver causes cirrhosis. First symptoms: brain damage, tremors, headaches, inability to speak, incoordination and psychosis.

Treatment:

The administration of total parenteral nutrition (nutritional intravenous feeding). An important way to reduce high copper levels is to enhance the activity of the adrenal glands. The adrenals cause the liver to secrete ceruloplasmin, which binds and removes copper. Adrenal underactivity causes a deficiency of available copper, and allows unbound copper to build up in the tissues. Adrenal glandular substance is also frequently helpful. Exercise temporarily stimulates the adrenals, which helps eliminate copper. One needs to keep exercising or the copper toxicity symptoms, fatigue, mood swings and depression will return. Temporary controls; coffee, caffeine in soda and some drugs.

Copper Food Sources:

Nutrient partners:

• Works with iron, zinc, manganese and B-6
• Needed in the utilization of Vitamin C
• Should be balanced with zinc in a 1:10 ratio
• Copper and pantothenic acid are related to hair color.
• Excess copper destroys Vitamin C.
• Necessary for the absorption of iron.
• Found in copper plumbing, vitamin and mineral pills, tea bags, cooking utensils
• Zinc, manganese, vitamin C and B-6, folic acid, sulfur and molybdenum are also copper antagonists, chelators or binders.

Copper Has Been Used to Successfully treat:

• Auditory Hallucinations
• Depression
• Histaperia Schizophrenia

Copper Studies And References

• "Copper and zinc deficiencies in association with depression and neurological findings." Hansen C.R. Jr., Biological Psychiatry 18 (3): p. 395-401 1983

• Study revealed that zinc and copper deficiencies in depression and auditory hallucinations improved in 2 months with Copper sulfate 10 milligrams daily. Once the copper treatment stopped the symptoms returned.

• "Copper toxicity syndrome." Nolan K.R., Journal of Orthomolecular Psychiatry 12: p. 270-82, 1983

• Excessive copper and zinc levels may cause brain dysfunction.

• "Levels of copper and zinc in depression." Narang R.L., Gupta K.R., Narang H.P., Singh R., Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology October 1991

• Copper levels in depressed patients were higher than those in the same patients after they had recovered from depression.

• "A copper Deficiency Anemia is Indistinguishable Haematologically from that of an Iron Deficiency Anemia." Lahey F. Clinical Significance of the Essential Biological Metals p. 57 1975

• American Journal of Clinical Nutrition Vol 43 p. 42 Jan 1986 Bhathena S.J. et al

• Copper deficiencies can result in low endorphin levels in the brain.

• Festa M.D., et al American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 41, p. 285, Feb 1985

• Low copper intake encourages high levels of cholesterol. Giving copper without zinc can make copper problems even worse.

• Fields M., et al Nutrition Reports International, vol. 34 no. 6 p. 1071 Dec 1986

• Britannica vol 3 p. 612-613

• The higher the intake of sugar, the lower the absorption of copper. - Fields M. et al Nutrition Reports International, vol 34. no. 6 p. 1071 Dec. 1986

• The higher the intake of sugar, the lower the absorption efficiency for copper. Copper is important in a variety of brain functions, including energy metabolism and creation of red blood cells for oxygen transport. - Bhathena S.J. et al American Journal of Clinical Nutrition vol. 43, p. 42 Jan 1986

• Copper is involved in the production of enkephalins. Copper intake in America is about half of the RDA. Researchers fed 24 male subjects low copper diets and found a closely tied drop in the levels of enkephalins (the internally produced substances that provide us with pain relief and pleasure) that were produced in the brain. - Journal of the American Medical Assoc. 224: 1578 (1973)

• "A study of zinc deficiency and copper excess in the schizophrenias." Pfeiffer C. and Iliev V., Intern Rev of Neurobiol 141-185 1972

• "Respiratory burst and candidacidal activity of peritoneal macrophages are impaired in copper-deficient rats." Babu U., Failla M.L., Journal of Nutrition, 1990 Dec. 120 (12): 1692-1699

• In rats, a copper-deficient diet resulted in reduced resistance to candida cells. Rats fed a diet with adequate copper, by contrast, had better systemic defenses against candida.
   

Sources: Zinc Liver Chelate, Chezyn ®, Catalyn ®

Signs/Symptoms: Lung cancer, neural tube defects, slow growth, anorexia

Discussion: Hair zinc levels show a number of interesting correlations, such as lower levels reported in lung cancer.72 Another study involving cancer showed that children with malignancies in remission exhibited the same values for zinc, copper, and a zinc/copper ratio as did controls. In contrast, children with malignancies not in remission showed decreased hair levels of zinc and copper and an increased zinc/copper ratio.73 In addition, maternal levels of zinc were decreased in women who bore children with neural tube defects.74 Zinc levels in hair were also low in children with pica, anorexia, and poor growth.75

Sources: Catalyn ®, Cataplex® E, Ligaplex® I, Manganese B12, Trace Minerals–B12®,

Signs/Symptoms:

Discussion: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis correlates with significantly higher levels of manganese.76 High hair manganese has also recently been associated with violent behavior, possibly because of its link to dopamine and serotonin depletion.77

Sources: Catalyn ®

Signs/Symptoms: Psychiatric disorders

Discussion: The element rubidium has been under scrutiny for its possible use in neuro-psychiatric medications, particularly as an anti-depressant in bipolar disorder. Although it can be toxic, this occurs only if concentrations in erythrocytes or muscle cells reach 30% of potassium levels. Rubidium gains entry to cells via K-pumping sites for which it exhibits a greater affinity than potassium itself.78

Grossly elevated hair rubidium may be cause for concern, especially if there are symptoms relating to potassium deficiency, such as weakness, hypotension, or muscle twitching

Sources: Catalyn ®

Signs/Symptoms: Osteoporosis, poor bone growth

Discussion: Strontium is under investigation as an agent that influences the osteoporotic process, inhibiting the activity of the 24 and 24, 25 hydroxy forms of Vitamin D3 in animal models.80

This pattern constitutes a potential area of concern regarding children exposed to strontium. Higher rates of problems with bone growth or mineralization may occur when excessive strontium is present, hampering the important bone-building process in children and teenagers.

Sources: Calcium Lactate, Calcifood ®, Calcifood Powder, Min-Chex ®, Min-Tran ®, Ostarplex ®, Rumaplex ®, Wheat Germ Oil, Catalyn ®

Signs/Symptoms: Cardiovascular disease, heart attack, osteoporosis

Discussion: An imbalance between calcium and magnesium may contribute to stone formation. This vitamin-mineral relationship may explain the beneficial effects of vitamin B6 in helping to reduce the incidence of kidney stone formation

Osteoporosis is also associated with low calcium.84 It was demonstrated that antioxidant supplementation along with vitamin D can increase hair calcium levels.85 These studies suggest that an inverse relationship exists between hair calcium and cardiovascular disease.

Sources: Calcium Lactate, Magnesium Lactate, Chlorophyll Complex, Min-Chex ®, Min-Tran ®, Organically Bound Minerals (formerly known as Organic Minerals™), Catalyn ®

Signs/Symptoms: Decreased blood flow to the brain, diabetes, {schizo} schizophrenia, osteoporosis

Discussion: An imbalance between calcium and magnesium may contribute to stone formation. This vitamin-mineral relationship may explain the beneficial effects of vitamin B6 in helping to reduce the incidence of kidney stone formation

The observations regarding these last two elements appear to support the importance of a proper calcium/magnesium ratio, leading away from simple calcium supplementation for those at risk for osteoporosis.

Sources: Catalyn ®

Signs/Symptoms: Psychiatric disorders especially bipolar disorder

Discussion: Correlations between hair vanadium levels and bipolar disorder indicate that the elevated vanadium found among patients with active symptoms tends to normalize during recovery.90

Symptoms associated with elevated molybdenum levels:

• Copper deficiency
• Anemia
• Gout

Symptoms associated with molybdenum deficiency:

• Reduced resistance against cancer
• Impotence
• Uric acid accumulation (gout)
• Defects in the metabolism of sulfur amino acids
• Dental caries
• Susceptibility to asthma

Discussion: Molybdenum is essential for plants and serves as a cofactor for the enzyme xanthine and aldehyde oxidases. Medical research states that this catalyst is possibly anticarcinogenic. The states of Colorado and Ohio have soils particularly rich in molybdenum, and report the lowest incidences of cancer of the esophagus. This type of cancer is particularly widespread in South Africa (Transkei region), which has very low molybdenum concentration. The same applies for regions that are poor in molybdenum.  Molybdenum is important for uric acid metabolism.

Molybdenum may play a role in the prevention of carcinogenesis of cells. Chung Hua Chung Liu Tsa Chi. Effect of molybdenum on the alkylation of DNA in the liver of rats treated with 14C-diethylnitrosamine. 1987.
Molybdenum may reduce sulfite sensitivity. Papaoiannou R. Pfeiffer CC. Sulfite sensitivity- unrecognized threat: Is molybdenum the cause? J Orthom Psych 13(2):105-110. 1984

Sources: Trace Minerals–B12®, Iodomere ®, Prolamine Iodine™

Signs/Symptoms: There is no significant danger of toxicity of iodine from a natural diet, though some care must be taken when supplementing iodine or using it in drug therapy. High iodine intake, however, may actually reduce thyroxine production and thyroid function. Excessive quantities of iodized salt, taking too many kelp tablets, or overuse of potassium iodide expectorants such as SSKI can cause some problems, but regular elevated intake of iodine is needed to produce toxicity. Some people have allergic reactions, mainly as skin rashes, to iodine products. Iodine supplementation may also worsen acne in some cases.

Deficiencies of iodine have been very common, especially in areas where the soil is depleted, as discussed earlier. Several months of iodine deficiency can lead to goiter and/or hypothyroidism. With decreased iodine, the thyroid cells and gland enlarge, creating a goiter, which may be noticed mainly by the swelling it causes in the base of the neck.

Goiter is usually associated with hypothyroidism, which is decreased thyroid function that leads to slower metabolism, fatigue, weight gain, sluggishness, dry hair, thick skin, poor mental functioning, decreased resistance to infection, a feeling of coldness, and a decrease in sexual energy. More advanced hypothyroidism may worsen these symptoms as well as create a hyperactive, manic state and hypertension, which is paradoxical because this may occur with an overactive thyroid as well. Iodine by itself usually will not cure goiter and hypothyroidism but often will slow their progression.

Goitrogens are substances that can induce goiter, primarily by interfering with the formation and function of thyroglobulin. Some natural goitrogens are soybeans, cabbage, cauliflower, and peanuts, especially when they come from iodine-deficient soils. Millet has recently been described as having goitrogenic tendencies. Certain drugs, such as thiouracil and sulfonamides, also act as goitrogens.

Some early studies correlate low iodine levels with an increased risk of breast cancer. These low levels usually correlate with low selenium levels as well, more classically associated with cancer. A higher incidence of breast cancer has been shown to occur in the goiter belt, whereas areas with high soil levels of iodine and selenium show a lower incidence.

Discussion: MIodine is a good example of a trace mineral whose deficiency creates a disease that is easily corrected by resupplying it in the diet. Goiter, an enlargement of the thyroid gland, develops when this important metabolic gland does not have enough iodine to manufacture hormones. As it increases its cell size to try to trap more iodine, the whole gland increases in size, creating a swelling in the neck. Without supplemental iodine, a hypothyroid condition results, likely leading to fatigue and sluggishness, weight gain, and coldness of the body; at this stage, the condition may be harder to treat with iodine alone and thyroid hormone supplementation may be needed.
Goiter was first noted in the Great Lakes region; the "goiter belt" included that area and the midwestern and Plains states. In the 1930s, approximately 40 percent of the people in Michigan had goiter, due mainly to iodine-deficient soil; glacier melting had washed away the iodine. Areas by oceans or in the vicinity of ocean breezes usually contain enough iodine to prevent goiters. In 1924, iodine was added to table salt, a substance that was already in wide use (our salt problem has been going on for a long time). Iodized salt was first introduced in Michigan; by 1940, it was in general use. Even today, iodine deficiency is still a problem, and many people in the United States have goiter. Cretinism, another condition caused by iodine deficiency, is characterized by mental retardation and other problems. It may be present in iodine-deficient babies or children born to women who are lacking iodine. It is a serious and nonreversible problem that should be avoided by proper iodine intake.

Iodine itself is a poisonous gas, as are the related halogens chlorine, fluorine, and bromine. However, as with chlorine, the salts or negatively charged ions of iodine (iodides) are soluble in water, and iodine is essential to life in trace amounts. Plants do not need iodine, but humans require it for the production of thyroid hormones that regulate the metabolic energy of the body and set the basal metabolic rate (BMR).

The body contains about 25 mg. of iodine. A small percentage of this is in the muscles, 20 percent is in the thyroid, and the rest is in the skin and bones. Only 1 percent is present in the blood. The concentration of iodine in the thyroid gland is very high, more than 1,000 times that in the muscles. Approximately one-fourth of thyroid iodine is in the two main thyroid hormones, T4 (thyroxine) and T3 (triiodothyronine). Thyroxine itself is nearly two-thirds iodine. The remainder is in the precursor molecules of these two important hormones.

Iodine is well absorbed from the stomach into the blood. About 30 percent goes to the thyroid gland, depending on the need. Iodine is eliminated rapidly. Most of the remaining 70 percent is filtered by the kidneys into the urine. Our bodies do not conserve iodine as they do iron, and we must obtain it regularly from the diet. There is recent concern that perhaps iodine is being overconsumed, especially in iodized salt. The incidence of goiter has been rising again, however, so there may be factors other than iodine involved in this problem.

Food Sources: The life from ocean waters provides the best source of iodine. Fish, shellfish, and sea vegetables (seaweed) are dependably rich sources. Cod, sea bass, haddock, and perch are a few examples of iodine-rich sea animals consumed by humans; kelp is the most common, high-iodine sea vegetable. Kelp in particular is rich in other minerals and low in sodium and thus is a good seasoning substitute for salt.

The use of iodized salt has certainly reduced most iodine deficiency. It contains about 76 mcg. of iodine per gram of salt. The average person consumes at least 3 grams of salt daily, exceeding the RDA for iodine of 150 mcg. Many authorities feel (and I believe) that commercial iodized salt is overused and has other drawbacks. It contains aluminum and other unneeded chemicals and may contribute to other problems. Fast foods may be very high in iodine because of the added salt. Adding iodine to salt is part of the paternalistic thinking of the industrial age, not counting on people to learn or adapt, "just put it in their food or water and save them from their own ignorance." There are healthier ways to obtain iodine than in table salt; eating fish, especially fresh ocean fish, is probably the best, as it also may help reduce cholesterol and cardiovascular disease risk. Sea salt from the ocean water is a natural source of iodine, although it is not nearly as high in this mineral as "iodized" salt.

Dietary iodine content may vary widely, depending on the iodine content in the soil in which food grows. Plants grown in or animals grazed on iodine-rich soil will contain substantial amounts of iodine. Milk and its products may be sources of iodine when the cows have an iodized salt lick in their pasture. Eggs may also be a good source when iodine is in the chicken feed. Bakers may add iodine to dough, so some may be present in bread. Other foods that may contain iodine, especially when the soil is good, are onions, mushrooms, lettuce, spinach, green peppers, pineapple, peanuts, cheddar cheese, and whole wheat bread. More and more, people are eating wholesome, natural foods, avoiding iodized salt, so they must eat more of the iodine-rich foods, such as the sea vegetables, or obtain iodine from a general vitamin-mineral supplement to make sure they are getting adequate amounts.

Functions: Iodine is an essential nutrient for production of the body's thyroid hormones and therefore is required for normal thyroid function. The thyroid hormones, particularly thyroxine, which is 65 percent iodine, are responsible for our basal metabolic rate (BMR)-that is, the body's use of energy. Thyroid is required for cell respiration and the production of energy as ATP and further increases oxygen consumption and general metabolism.

The thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine, are also needed for normal growth and development, protein synthesis, and energy metabolism. As thyroid stimulates the energy production of the cellular mitochondria and affects our BMR, it literally influences all body functions. Nerve and bone formation, reproduction, the condition of the skin, hair, nails, and teeth, and our speech and mental state are all influenced by thyroid as well. Thyroid and, thus, iodine also affect the conversion of carotene to vitamin A and of ribonucleic acids to protein; cholesterol synthesis; and carbohydrate absorption.

Iodine is picked up by the thyroid and combines with the thyroid hormones and amino acid tyrosine to make the thyroid hormone precursors diiodotyrosine, diiodothyronine, and monoiodotyrosine and, then, the hormones T3 and T4. These hormones are then carried through the body by a protein called thyroid binding globulin (TBG).

Uses: Supplemental iodine may be helpful in correcting hypothyroidism and goiter caused by deficient iodine intake, and it may reverse many of the symptoms of cretinism if given soon after birth. Thus, iodine's main use is really in the prevention or early treatment of its deficiency diseases.

Iodine has also been used to help increase energy level and utilization in cases of fatigue, mental sluggishness, and weight gain caused by hypothyroidism. Iodine itself will not help with weight loss if there is normal thyroid function. If weight gain results from iodine deficiency causing decreased thyroid activity, this hypothyroid condition may be improved with iodine followed by thyroid supplementation. Iodine solutions, such as iodine tincture or Betadine, are commonly used as antiseptics and can actually kill bacteria and fungi.

Because of the thyroid's role in fat and cholesterol metabolism, sufficient iodine and thus normal thyroid levels are thought to help reduce atherosclerosis potential. Also, iodine and thyroid may help maintain healthy hair, skin, and nails. It is possible that iodine deficiency increases the risk of certain cancers, such as breast, ovary, and uterus. Iodine levels may be low in people with fibrocystic breast disease; in this case, supplementation may improve this condition.

Potassium iodide has been used medicinally for problems of the skin and as an expectorant for bronchial congestion. Silver iodide has been used to seed clouds to bring rain, but this practice is considered ecologically unsound. Iodine supplements may help prevent uptake of radioactive iodine if that is present in the environment or in medical diagnostic procedures. If the thyroid were saturated with normal iodine, it would eliminate the radioactive molecules more rapidly.

Requirements: The RDA for iodine in adults is 150 mcg. The amount necessary to prevent goiter is about 1 mcg./kg.-that is, about 50-75 mcg. for most adults. Average intake from diet ranges from 65 mcg. to about 650 mcg. Much of that may come from iodized salt, which is not highly recommended; however, it is very difficult to avoid salt completely in our culture because it is added to so many prepared foods and by restaurants and mothers everywhere. A 6-ounce portion of ocean fish contains about 500 mcg. of iodine, more than is contained in one teaspoon of salt but without the extra 2 grams of sodium. Ideally, we can meet our iodine requirements by eating seafood, seaweed, and vegetables grown in iodine-rich soil. A typical mineral or complete vitamin supplement will contain the RDA, 150 mcg., of iodine per day. More iodine is needed during pregnancy and lactation. People on low-salt diets may need supplemental iodine.
 

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