The Nervous System - Advanced Version / The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system is a channel for the relay of sensory and motor impulses between the central nervous system on the one hand and the body surface, skeletal muscles, and internal organs on the other hand. It is composed of (1) spinal nerves, (2) cranial nerves, and (3) certain parts of the autonomic nervous system. As in the central nervous system, peripheral nervous pathways are made up of neurons (that is, nerve cell bodies and their axons and dendrites) as well as the points at which one neuron communicates with the next (that is, the synapse). The structures commonly known as nerves (or by such names as roots, rami, trunks, and branches) are actually composed of orderly arrangements of the axonal and dendritic processes of many nerve cell bodies.

The cell bodies of peripheral neurons are often found grouped into clusters called ganglia. Based on the type of nerve cell bodies found in ganglia, they may be classified as either sensory or motor. Sensory ganglia are found as oval swellings on the dorsal roots of spinal nerves, and they are also found on the roots of certain cranial nerves. The sensory neurons making up these ganglia are unipolar. Shaped much like a golf ball on a tee, they have round or slightly oval cell bodies with concentrically located nuclei, and they give rise to a single fiber that undergoes a T-shaped bifurcation, one branch going to the periphery and the other entering the brain or spinal cord. There are no synaptic contacts between neurons in a sensory ganglion.

Motor ganglia are associated with neurons of the autonomic nervous system. Many of these are found in the sympathetic trunks, two long chains of ganglia lying along each side of the vertebral column from the base of the skull to the coccyx; these are referred to as paravertebral. Other motor ganglia (called prevertebral) are found near internal organs innervated by their projecting fibers, while still others (called terminal ganglia) are found on the surfaces or within the walls of the target organs themselves. Motor ganglia contain multipolar cell bodies, which have irregular shapes and eccentrically located nuclei and which project several dendritic and axonal processes. Preganglionic fibers originating from the brain or spinal cord enter motor (autonomic) ganglia, where they synapse on multipolar cell bodies. These postganglionic cells, in turn, send their processes to visceral structures.

Sensory input from the body surface, from joint, tendon, and muscle receptors, and from internal organs passes centrally through the dorsal roots of the spinal cord. fibers from motor cells in the spinal cord exit via the ventral roots and course to their peripheral targets (autonomic ganglia or skeletal muscle). The spinal nerve is formed by the joining of dorsal and ventral roots, and it is the basic structural and functional unit on which the peripheral nervous system is built.

In humans there are 31 pairs of spinal nerves. In descending order from the most rostral end of the spinal cord, there are 8 cervical (designated C1–C8), 12 thoracic (T1–T12), 5 lumbar (L1–L5), 5 sacral (S1–S5), and 1 coccygeal (Coc1). Each spinal nerve exits the vertebral canal through an opening called the intervertebral foramen. The first spinal nerve (C1) exits between the skull and the first cervical vertebra; consequently, spinal nerves C1–C7 exit above the correspondingly numbered vertebrae. Spinal nerve C8, however, exits between the 7th cervical and first thoracic vertebrae, so that, beginning with T1, all other spinal nerves exit below their corresponding vertebrae.
 

Just outside the intervertebral foramen, two branches, known as the gray and white rami communicates, connect the spinal nerve with the sympathetic trunk. These rami, along with the sympathetic trunk and more distal ganglia, are concerned with the innervation of organs. In addition, small meningeal branches leave the spinal nerve and gray ramus and reenter the vertebral canal, where they innervate dura and blood vessels.

More peripherally, the spinal nerve divides into ventral and dorsal rami. All dorsal rami (with the exception of those from C1, S4, S5, and Coc1) have medial and lateral branches, which innervate deep back muscles and overlying skin. The medial and lateral branches of the dorsal rami of spinal nerves C2–C8 supply both muscles and skin of the neck. Those of T1–T6 are mostly cutaneous (that is, supplying only the skin), while those from T7–T12 are mainly muscular. Dorsal rami from L1–L3 have both sensory and motor fibers, while those from L4–L5 are only muscular. Dorsal rami of S1–S3 may also be divided into medial and lateral branches, serving deep muscles of the lower back as well as cutaneous areas of the lower buttocks and perianal area. Undivided dorsal rami from S4, S5, and Coc1 also send cutaneous branches to the gluteal and perianal regions.

Ventral rami of the spinal nerves carry sensory and motor fibers for the innervation of the muscles, joints, and skin of the lateral and ventral body walls and the extremities (see below Plexuses of the ventral rami). Both dorsal and ventral rami also contain autonomic fibers.

Because spinal nerves contain both sensory fibers (from the dorsal roots) and motor fibers (from the ventral roots), they are known as mixed nerves. When individual fibers of a spinal nerve are identified by their specific function, they may be categorized as one of four types: (1) general somatic afferent, (2) general visceral afferent, (3) general somatic efferent, and (4) general visceral efferent. The term somatic refers to the body wall (broadly defined to include skeletal muscles as well as the surface of the skin), and visceral refers to structures composed of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, or glandular epithelium (or a combination of these). Efferent fibers carry motor information to skeletal muscle and to autonomic ganglia (and then to visceral structures), and afferent fibers carry sensory information from them.

General somatic afferent receptors are sensitive to pain, thermal sensation, touch and pressure, and changes in the position of the body. (Pain and temperature sensation coming from the surface of the body are called exteroceptive, while sensory information arising from tendons, muscles, or joint capsules are called proprioceptive.) General visceral afferent receptors are found in organs of the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis; their fibers convey, for example, pain information from the digestive tract. Both types of afferent fiber project centrally from cell bodies in dorsal-root ganglia.

General somatic efferent fibers originate from large ventral-horn cells and distribute to skeletal muscles in the body wall and in the extremities. General visceral efferent fibers also arise from cell bodies located within the spinal cord, but they exit only at thoracic and upper lumbar levels or at sacral levels (more specifically, at levels T1–L2 and S2–S4). fibers from T1–L2 enter the sympathetic trunk, where they either form synaptic contacts within a ganglion, ascend or descend within the trunk, or exit the trunk and proceed to ganglia situated closer to their target organs. fibers from S2–S4, on the other hand, leave the cord as the pelvic nerve and proceed to terminal ganglia located in the target organs. Postganglionic fibers arising from ganglia in the sympathetic trunk rejoin the spinal nerves and distribute to blood vessels, sweat glands, and arrector pili muscles, while postganglionic fibers arising from prevertebral and terminal ganglia innervate viscera of the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis.

All plexuses arising from the ventral rami of spinal nerves contain sensory, motor, and autonomic fibers. The plexuses are the cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal.
 

Cervical levels C1–C4 are the main contributors to the cervical plexus; in addition, small branches link C1 and C2 with the vagus nerve, C1 and C2 with the hypoglossal nerve, and C2–C4 with the accessory nerve. Sensory branches of the cervical plexus are the lesser occipital nerve (to scalp behind the ear), the great auricular nerve (to the ear and to the skin over the mastoid and parotid areas), transverse cervical cutaneous nerves (to lateral and ventral neck surfaces), and supraclavicular nerves (along the clavicle, shoulder, and upper chest). Motor branches serve muscles that stabilize and flex the neck, muscles that stabilize the hyoid bone (to assist in actions like swallowing), and muscles that elevate the upper ribs.

Originating from C4, with small contributions from C3 and C5, are the phrenic nerves, which carry sensory information from parts of the pleura and pericardium and motor impulses to muscles of the diaphragm. Injury to the phrenic nerves would paralyze the diaphragm and render breathing difficult or impossible.

Cervical levels C5–C8 and thoracic level T1 contribute to the formation of the brachial plexus; small fascicles also arrive from C4 and T2. Spinal nerves from these levels converge to form superior (C5 and C6), middle (C7), and inferior (C8 and T1) trunks, which in turn split into anterior and posterior divisions. The divisions then form cords (posterior, lateral, and medial), which provide motor, sensory, and autonomic fibers to the shoulder and upper extremity.

Nerves to shoulder and pectoral muscles include the dorsal scapular (to the rhomboid muscles), suprascapular (to supraspinatus and infraspinatus), medial and lateral pectoral (to pectoralis minor and major), long thoracic (to serratus anterior), thoracodorsal (to latissimus dorsi), and subscapular (to teres major and subscapular). The axillary nerve carries motor fibers to the deltoid and teres minor muscles as well as sensory fibers to the lateral surface of the shoulder and upper arm. The biceps, brachialis, and coracobrachialis muscles, as well as the lateral surface of the forearm, are served by the musculocutaneous nerve.

The three major nerves of the arm, forearm, and hand are the radial, median, and ulnar. The radial nerve innervates the triceps, anconeus, and brachioradialis muscles, eight extensors of the wrist and digits, and one abductor of the hand; it is also sensory to part of the hand. The median nerve branches in the forearm to serve the palmaris longus, two pronator muscles, four flexor muscles, thenar muscles, and lumbrical muscles; most of these serve the wrist and hand. The ulnar nerve serves two flexor muscles and a variety of small muscles of the wrist and hand.

Cutaneous innervation of the upper extremity originates, via the brachial plexus, from spinal cord levels C3–T2. The shoulder is served by supraclavicular branches (C3, C4) of the cervical plexus, while the anterior and lateral aspects of the arm and forearm have sensory innervation via the axillary (C5, C6), nerve as well as the dorsal (C5, C6), lateral (C5, C6), and medial (C8, T1) antebrachial cutaneous nerves. These same nerves have branches that wrap around to serve portions of the posterior and medial surfaces of the extremity. The palm of the hand is served by the median (C6–C8) and ulnar (C8, T1) nerves. The ulnar nerve also wraps around to serve medial areas of the dorsum, or back, of the hand. A line drawn down the midline of the ring finger represents the junction of the ulnar-radial distribution on the back of the hand and the ulnar-median distribution on the palm. A small part of the thumb and the distal thirds of the index, middle, and lateral surface of the ring finger are served by the median nerve. The inner aspect of the arm and adjacent armpit is served by intercostobrachial and posterior and medial brachial cutaneous nerves (T1–T2).

Spinal nerves from lumbar levels L1–L4 contribute to the formation of the lumbar plexus, which, along with the sacral plexus, provides motor, sensory, and autonomic fibers to gluteal and inguinal regions and to the lower extremity. Lumbar roots are organized into dorsal and ventral divisions.

Minor cutaneous and muscular branches of the lumbar plexus include the iliohypogastric, genitofemoral, and ilioinguinal (projecting to the lower abdomen and to inguinal and genital regions) and the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve (to skin on the lateral thigh). Two major branches are the obturator and femoral nerves. The obturator enters the thigh through the obturator foramen; motor branches proceed to the obturator internus and gracilis muscles as well as the adductor muscles, while sensory branches supply the articular capsule of the knee joint. An accessory obturator nerve supplies the pectineus muscle of the thigh and is sensory to the hip joint.

The sartorius muscle and medial and anterior surfaces of the thigh are served by branches of the anterior division of the femoral nerve. The posterior division of the femoral nerve provides sensory fibers to the inner surface of the leg (saphenous nerve), to the quadriceps muscles (muscular branches), the hip and knee joints, and the articularis genu muscle.

The ventral rami of L5 and S1–S3 form the sacral plexus, with contributions from L4 and S4. Branches from this plexus innervate gluteal muscles, muscles forming the internal surface of the pelvic basin (including those forming the levator ani), and muscles that run between the femur and pelvis to stabilize the hip joint (such as the obturator, piriformis, and quadratus femoris muscles). These muscles lend their names to the nerves that innervate them. Cutaneous branches from the plexus serve the buttocks, perineum, and posterior surface of the thigh.

The major nerve of the sacral plexus, and the largest in the body, is the sciatic. Formed by the joining of ventral and dorsal divisions of the plexus, it passes through the greater sciatic foramen and descends in back of the thigh. There, sciatic branches innervate the biceps femoris, semitendinosus and semimembranosus muscles, and part of the adductor magnus muscle. In the popliteal fossa (just above the knee) the sciatic nerve divides into the tibial nerve and the common fibular (or peroneal) nerve. The tibial nerve (from the dorsal division) continues distally in the calf and innervates the gastrocnemius muscle, deep leg muscles such as the popliteus, soleus, and tibialis posterior, and the flexor muscles, lumbrical muscles, and other muscles of the ankle and plantar aspects of the foot. The peroneal nerve, from the ventral division, passes to the anterior surface of the leg and innervates the tibialis anterior, the fibularis muscles, and extensor muscles that elevate the foot and fan the toes. Cutaneous branches from the tibial and common fibular nerves serve the outer sides of the leg and the top and bottom of the foot and toes.

The ventral rami of S4, S5, and the 1st coccygeal nerve form the coccygeal plexus, from which small anococcygeal nerves arise to innervate the skin over the coccyx (tailbone) and around the anus.

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